Life & Career

• Born in Żelazowa Wola, Poland; child prodigy — began composing and performing at a very early age
• Formal studies at the Warsaw Conservatory from age 16
• Moved to Paris in 1831 — became a central figure in the Romantic movement
• Admired for technical brilliance and deeply expressive compositions
• Well connected in artistic circles — friendships with Robert Schumann and Franz Liszt
• Died 1849, aged 39

Major Compositions

• Largest works: 2 Piano Concertos, 3 Piano Sonatas
• Best known for smaller works: nocturnes, waltzes, mazurkas, polonaises, études, preludes, ballades, scherzos
• Famous works: Fantaisie impromptu Op. 66, 'Minute' waltz Op. 64 No. 1, 'Raindrop' prélude Op. 28 No. 15
• 24 Préludes Op. 28, 27 Études (Op. 10, Op. 25, and the Trois nouvelles études)

Style Characteristics

• Lyrical, cantabile melodies
• Advanced and novel harmonies; adventurous chromaticism
• Use of rubato and pedal
• Incorporation of Polish dance rhythms (mazurka, polonaise)
• Influences: J.S. Bach and Mozart (counterpoint/form), bel canto vocal style, John Field (nocturne), Polish folk music

About the Trois nouvelles études

• Written in 1839 as a contribution to Méthode des méthodes de piano compiled by Ignaz Moscheles and musicologist François-Joseph Fétis
• No opus number — often (incorrectly) described as posthumous
• Étude No. 2 is in A♭ major (relative major) — chordal texture, uses polyrhythms
• Étude No. 3 is in D♭ major — most technically challenging of the three

Main Features of the Étude

• Key: F minor; notated in simple quadruple time (arguably better understood as simple duple)
• Texture: homophonic — right hand carries melody throughout; left hand accompanies with arpeggios
• Romantic style: lyrical, arcing melodies; adventurous chromaticism; three-against-four polyrhythms; sweeping arpeggio accompaniment

Structure — Binary Form with Introduction and Coda

• Intro (bars 1–8), F minor: Bars 1–4: RH alone, characteristic crotchet-triplet rhythm, outlines a dominant seventh chord with chromatic embellishments. Bars 5–8: LH accompaniment introduced, sustaining tonic harmony.
• Section A (bars 9–21), F minor: Three four-bar segments. First: long arcing phrase, tonic and dominant harmonies, chromatic embellishment. Second: two similar two-bar phrases, tonicising A♭ major then C major. Third: restates introduction melody over dominant harmony → strong perfect cadence (bars 20–21).
• Section B (bars 22–57), tonal restlessness: New alternating-note theme in descending sequence (bars 22–25); modulations through C minor, D♭ major, G♭ major, E♭ minor; bars 49–57 entirely over a tonic pedal but tonally unstable; bars 53–57 return to diatonic chords, perfect cadence in F minor.
• Coda (bars 58–67), F minor: Restates Section B theme; tonicises G♭ major; returns to tonic key; concludes with a strong perfect cadence in block chords.

Key Harmonic Devices

• Polyrhythm (3 against 4): A favourite of Chopin (also used in the Fantaisie impromptu Op. 66) and Brahms. Only became common in the Romantic period.
• Chromaticism: Melody sounds almost atonal when unaccompanied; chord tones decorated with passing notes, auxiliary notes, and incomplete auxiliary notes (most often chromatic).
• Neapolitan chord: First used in bar 23 — first-inversion D♭ major chord pivots between F minor and C minor (V♭I in original key, ♭II♭ in new key). Also in bar 61 (root position) as approach chord to final cadence.
• Tonic pedal: Bars 49–57 — confirms the key despite chromatic chords above.

Romantic Period Characteristics

What instrument? (fortepiano vs modern piano)

Composed in 1839 — Chopin wrote for the early modern piano (pianoforte). By 1839 the iron frame, felt hammers (patented 1826), and double-escapement action (patented 1821) were available, and the range had reached 7 octaves (1822). The instrument was richer and more powerful than the earlier fortepiano but still lighter in tone than today's concert grand.

Contemporaries of Chopin

Robert Schumann (German, 1810–1856), Franz Liszt (Hungarian, 1811–1886), Felix Mendelssohn (German, 1809–1847), Clara Schumann (German, 1819–1896), Hector Berlioz (French, 1803–1869).

Life & Career

• Born in Rome; spent most of his life in England
• Established himself as composer, pianist, conductor, teacher, publisher, and piano manufacturer
• Known in his time as the 'father of the pianoforte' — his company's instruments were exported widely
• 1781: Famous musical duel with Mozart at the court of Emperor Joseph II — boosted Clementi's fame (though Mozart later criticised his playing)
• His Gradus ad Parnassum remains an essential pedagogical work for pianists
• His sonatas influenced composers including Beethoven

Major Compositions

• Over 100 piano sonatas — late sonatas particularly notable for expanding scale and expressive scope
• Gradus ad Parnassum (1817–26) — pedagogical collection of 100 studies
• Symphonies, concertos, chamber music
• Style: idiomatic figuration, rapid passagework, wide leaps, dynamic contrasts

Influences

• Domenico Scarlatti: virtuosic keyboard style shaped his early approach
• Haydn: thematic development and formal clarity informed his mature works

About the Sonata Op. 24 No. 2

• Clementi played this sonata in Vienna in December 1781 before an audience including Emperor Joseph II and Mozart
• Despite their rivalry, Mozart repurposed the first movement's opening motive in the overture to The Magic Flute
• Three movements: Allegro con brio (1st, B♭ major) → Andante (2nd, F major — dominant key) → Rondo (3rd, B♭ major)

Main Features of Allegro con brio

• Key: B♭ major; simple quadruple time; homophonic texture, melody in RH throughout
• Classical style: light and graceful character; clear balanced phrases; simple chordal accompaniment
• Monothematic sonata form: both subjects based on the same melodic material (associated with Haydn, but with precedents in C.P.E. Bach)
• Most important modulation: to F major (dominant); also C major (dominant of dominant), C minor (supertonic), F minor (dominant minor), B♭ minor (parallel minor), E♭ major (subdominant)

Structure — Monothematic Sonata Form

• Exposition: 1st thematic group (bars 1–12): three themes in B♭ major, including a plagal cadence in theme 1 and dominant pedal in theme 2. Transition (bars 12–25): modulates to F major via C major. 2nd thematic group (bars 26–51): three themes in F major, all based on 1st group material. Codetta (bars 51–55): F major, tonic pedal.
• Development (bars 56–78): 1st theme begins in F major → C minor → C minor/F minor → B♭ minor; passagework; retransition (bars 75–78) expands dominant chord.
• Recapitulation (bars 79–132): Only 1st theme (truncated). Transition (bars 82–95) varied. 2nd thematic group now in B♭ major. Coda (bars 121–132): recalls 2nd theme of 1st group, mostly E♭ major; codetta repeated in tonic.

Notable Harmonic Devices

• Pedal point: Recurring feature throughout (tonic and dominant pedals)
• Cadential Ic chords: At all important cadences (bars 7, 11, 36, 47–48, 106, 117–118, 126)
• Passing Ic chords: Bars 70 and 72; suspension and appoggiatura in bars 70–74 enhance harmonic tension
• Secondary dominants and secondary leading-note chords: Many throughout
• Chromatically rising diminished seventh chords: Bar 35 (and bar 105) — outer voices create chromatic passing notes
• Common-tone diminished seventh: Bar 47 (and bar 117) — unusual chord ornamenting cadential Ic over a dominant pedal

Classical Style Characteristics

For What Instrument?

Composed 1781 — written for the fortepiano. Differences from the modern piano: wood frame (not iron); leather hammers (not felt); smaller range (~5½ octaves); knee-operated sustaining pedal; lighter, thinner tone with less sustaining power and quicker decay.

Contemporaries of Clementi

Haydn (Austrian, 1732–1809), Mozart (Austrian, 1756–1791), Beethoven (German, 1770–1827), Hummel (Austrian, 1778–1837), Johann Baptist Cramer (German/English, 1771–1858).

Life & Career

• Born into a prominent, wealthy German family; child prodigy — broad education in music, art, and philosophy
• Sister Fanny Hensel (née Mendelssohn) also became an established composer
• Enjoyed financial security throughout his life — unlike many contemporaries
• Central figure in 19th-century German musical life
• Instrumental in reviving the music of J.S. Bach — most famously conducted the St Matthew Passion in 1829, sparking a new interest in Bach
• Renowned conductor; appointed Music Director of the Gewandhaus Orchestra, Leipzig — held until his death
• Died 1847, aged 38

Major Compositions

• Five symphonies (incl. 'Scottish' and 'Italian')
• Violin Concerto in E minor, two piano concertos
• Chamber music: Octet for strings
• Piano: Lieder ohne Worte (Songs without words)
• Oratorios; incidental music for Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream (incl. famous Wedding March)

Influences

• J.S. Bach, Handel, Mozart — formal structures and contrapuntal techniques
• His extensive travels — informed programmatic elements of 'Scottish' and 'Italian' symphonies
• Blends Classical clarity with Romantic lyricism

About the Two Musical Sketches

• Two short pieces published in 1833: (1) lyrical Andante in B♭ major, and (2) turbulent Presto agitato in G minor
• The two pieces share a key signature but are otherwise musically unrelated
• Presto agitato is not listed as a WoO (without opus number) erroneously; the full catalogue number is WoO 19 No. 2

Main Features of Presto agitato

• Key: G minor; simple quadruple time; homophonic — both hands carry the melody at different points
• Romantic style: tempestuous character, dramatic expression, virtuosic texture of elaborate arpeggios, adventurous chromatic harmony
• Prominent modulations to D minor (dominant) and C minor (subdominant)

Structure — Sonata Form

• Exposition: 1st subject (bars 1–4²): G minor, repeated two-bar unit over a tonic pedal, weak perfect cadence. Transition (bars 4³–12): D minor, new theme with anacrusis; confirmed by emphatic imperfect cadence. 2nd thematic group (bars 13–23¹): D minor — 1st theme in LH over tonic pedal (bars 13–17¹), 2nd theme in RH (bars 17–23¹), elaborate and developmental. Codetta (bars 23–28): D minor, dramatic melodic tritone, restated perfect cadences.
• Development (bars 28–47): 1st subject restated in C minor (subdominant) using leading-note 7th chord instead of tonic triad (bars 28–32²). Passage modelled on transition with chromatic developmental passage, tonicising G minor then C minor (bars 32³–43³). Two similar two-bar units recalling both subjects (bars 43³–47) → returns to tonic key.
• Recapitulation (bars 48–65¹): 1st subject (bars 48–51¹): restated; 2nd altered to lead to strong perfect cadence. NB: in the recapitulation, the 2nd thematic group's themes are reversed (1st becomes 2nd, 2nd becomes 1st). Chromatic diversions build tension. Codetta (bars 61–65¹): develops bars 25–26 into dramatic block chords.
• Coda (bars 65–71): Cadence restated three times, then expands to a major tonic arpeggio — concludes with a tierce de Picardie (G major).

Romantic Style Characteristics

Key Terms

• Tierce de Picardie: A major tonic chord ending a minor-key piece — used in the coda (G major to close in G minor)
• Tonic pedal: Sustaining/repeating tonic note; clarifies key — used extensively in exposition
• Anacrusis: An upbeat figure before the first full bar — used in 1st subject, carried into the transition
• Sonata form: Exposition (tonic + dominant) → Development (various keys) → Recapitulation (all tonic)

Contemporaries of Mendelssohn

Chopin (Polish, 1810–1849), Robert Schumann (German, 1810–1856), Liszt (Hungarian, 1811–1886), Berlioz (French, 1803–1869), Clara Schumann (German, 1819–1896).

Life & Career

• French composer; younger sister of the influential teacher and composer Nadia Boulanger
• Musical prodigy from a very young age
• First woman to win the Prix de Rome composition prize (1913) — a remarkable achievement
• Life tragically cut short by illness at age 24 (1918)
• Despite limited output, her work is notable for intense emotional expression, refined craftsmanship, and innovative harmonic language
• Reflects both Impressionist influences and a unique personal voice exploring spirituality and nature

Major Compositions

• Sacred choral pieces: Psalm 24 and Psalm 130 (Du fond de l'abîme)
• Vieille prière bouddhique (Old Buddhist Prayer) for voice and orchestra
• D'un matin de printemps (Of a spring morning) — originally for violin and piano, later arranged for orchestra
• Piano works including Trois morceaux (published posthumously, 1919)

Influences

• Teachers: Gabriel Fauré and Paul Vidal
• Impressionist composers, especially Claude Debussy — harmonic language and focus on timbre
• Her music is challenging to categorise; shares elements with Impressionism and later styles

About Cortège

• Composed July 1914 during Boulanger's time in Rome following her Prix de Rome win
• Originally for piano; alternative version for violin (or flute) and piano composed the following year
• Belongs to the triptych Trois morceaux (published posthumously, 1919). Cortège is preceded by D'un vieux jardin (E major) and D'un jardin clair (B major) — both slower and more reflective
• Title literally means 'procession' — but in French carries festive, not funereal associations; often described as evoking a carnival parade

Main Features

• Tonal centre: 'in B' — key signature of B major used, but draws on B Mixolydian or B major pentatonic scale; some passages have no apparent tonal centre
• Simple duple time; homophonic — melody mostly in RH
• Impressionist style: atmospheric character; modal harmony, whole-tone scales, pentatonic scales, parallel harmony

Structure — Loose Ternary with Introduction and Coda

• Intro (bars 1–2): B Mixolydian — introduces accompaniment figure (alternating chords/bass notes: sense of 'walking in the cortège')
• Section A¹ (bars 3–34): Three four-bar phrases introduce and restate the main theme (bars 3–14, B Mixolydian). Bars 15–24 increase chromaticism, cadence in F♯ major (dominant). Bars 25–34: varied restatement transposed to F♯ major/C♯ Phrygian dominant.
• Section B (bars 35–46¹): C♯ Phrygian dominant — LH introduces a new two-bar phrase; repeated and transposed. Bars 42–46¹: melody returns to RH; largely whole-tone scale, ascending whole-tone scale leads into A².
• Section A² (bars 46–70¹): Varied restatement of A¹ with melody one octave higher (bars 46–57). Bars 58–70¹: theme restated but varied; sequential bridging passage; returns to tonic at bar 70.
• Coda (bars 70–83): B major pentatonic. Bars 70–74¹: lengthy descending arpeggio + four dramatic chords. Bars 74–78¹: repeat one octave lower with different chords. Bars 78–83: ascending pentatonic scale followed by gentle tonic chords.

Key Harmonic Devices

• Parallel harmony (planing): Chord shapes moved in parallel motion without regard to key signature — creates consecutive 5ths (deliberate, à la Debussy)
• Borrowed chords: Major and minor thirds of key used simultaneously (e.g. D major triad in bar 26)
• Tritone substitution: C⁷–B cadence (bars 72–73) understood as a perfect cadence where the dominant 7th has been replaced by tritone substitution
• Whole-tone scale: Bars 44–45 (ascending whole-tone scale); melody in bars 42–43 largely derived from whole-tone scale
• Octatonic scale: Bars 66²–69 — alternating tones and semitones (B–C♯–D–E–E♯/F–G–G♯–A♯); associated with 20th century but also appears in Beethoven and Tchaikovsky
• Added-note chords: Bar 70: B add6 chord; bar 78: B⁶⁹ chord (encompasses entire major pentatonic scale)
• Consecutive fifths: Deliberately used from bar 1 (Debussy also used them to evoke 'exotic' sounds)

French Terms in the Score

• Pas vite — not fast
• Léger et gai — light and cheerful
• Cédez — gradually becoming slower
• Faire désirer le temps suivant — build anticipation (literally 'make the listener long for what comes next')
• Presser en peu — press forward a little
• Serrez — becoming faster
• Au Mouvement — return to former speed (a tempo)
• Très léger, mais joyeusement — very light, but joyfully
• Plus vite et en pressant jusqu'à la fin — faster, pressing ahead to the end
• Vite — lively, spirited

Impressionist Characteristics

Contemporaries of Boulanger

Claude Debussy (French, 1862–1918), Maurice Ravel (French, 1875–1937), Gabriel Fauré (French, 1845–1924), Erik Satie (French, 1866–1925), Nadia Boulanger (French, 1887–1979).

Classical Period (c.1750–1820)

• Light, elegant, restrained; homophonic texture; short balanced phrases
• Simple chordal/Alberti bass accompaniment; diatonic harmonies; modulations to closely related keys
• Codification of sonata form, rondo form, minuet and trio, theme and variations
• Composers: Haydn, Mozart, Clementi, Beethoven, Hummel, Schubert
• Instrument: fortepiano

Romantic Period (c.1820–1900)

• Passionate, expressive; rubato; thick textures; lyrical, long phrases; wide dynamic range
• Rich chromatic harmonies (7th/9th chords); modulations by 3rds; pedal essential
• Character pieces flourished (nocturnes, études, impromptus, rhapsodies)
• Composers: Mendelssohn, Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Grieg, Albéniz

Impressionist Period (c.1890–1918)

• Delicate, misty; flexible rhythms, no strong regular accent; light ethereal texture
• Avoids dominant–tonic cadences; modal/whole-tone/pentatonic scales; bitonality
• Parallel chords (including consecutive 5ths); 7th/9th chords; added-note chords; pedal points
• Composers: Debussy, Ravel, Delius (but note: both Debussy and Ravel disliked the label)

Development of the Piano

• ~1700: Bartolomeo Cristofori, Florence — invents the piano (gravicembalo col piano e forte), 4–4½ octave range, escapement mechanism
• 1780s: Range increases to 5½ octaves
• 1821: Double-escapement action patented by Sébastien Erard (easier note repetition)
• 1822: Range reaches 7 octaves
• 1820s: Metal frames begin to be used (replaces wood)
• 1826: Felt hammer coverings patented by Henri Pape (replaces leather)
• 1859: Overstringing patented by Henry Steinway Jr. (longer strings, richer sound)

Fortepiano vs. Modern Piano

• Wood frame (not iron) → less powerful sound
• Leather hammers (not felt) → brighter, thinner tone
• Smaller range (~5½ octaves vs 7¼)
• Knee-operated sustaining pedal (not foot)
• Lighter tone with less sustaining power
• No overstringing — strings ran parallel

Key Musical Forms

• Binary (AB): Two sections; first usually ends in dominant or relative major; second ends in tonic
• Ternary (ABA): Three sections, third similar to first; B contrasting, usually in different key
• Sonata form: Exposition (1st subject tonic, 2nd subject dominant/relative major) → Development → Recapitulation (all tonic)
• Monothematic sonata form: Both subjects based on same melodic material (associated with Haydn; also used by Clementi in Op. 24 No. 2)
• Rondo (ABAC...A): Main theme returns at least twice in tonic, separated by contrasting episodes

Important Harmonic Concepts

• Polyrhythm (3:4): Three notes against four — used by Chopin and Brahms; became common only in the Romantic period
• Neapolitan chord: First-inversion chord built on the flattened 2nd degree (♭II6) — adds colour, leads to dominant
• Tierce de Picardie: Major tonic chord ending a minor-key work — common in Baroque and Renaissance, also used by Mendelssohn in Presto agitato
• Tonic pedal: Sustained/repeated tonic note in bass — confirms or strengthens key
• Dominant pedal: Sustained dominant note — builds tension, expectation of tonic return
• Parallel harmony (planing): Chord shapes in parallel motion — used by Boulanger and Debussy; creates consecutive 5ths (permitted in Impressionism)
• Whole-tone scale: Six-note scale, all whole tones — creates harmonic ambiguity (no leading note)
• Octatonic scale: Eight-note scale, alternating tones and semitones — used by Boulanger (bars 66²–69)
• Tritone substitution: Replacing the dominant 7th chord with one whose root is a tritone away — used in Cortège, bars 72–73